Economic value Essay

There are two economic concepts integrated in the industry of ecotourism: economic impact and economic value (Lindberg, Kreg, 1996). Economic impact, according to Lindberg, refers to the changes in the figures of sales, income and jobs that are generated or directly derived from the practice of ecotourism. Economic value on the other hand refers to the general effect of ecotourism in the economy of the area as a whole. Lindberg also explained that the impact of ecotourism is more evident and more positive in remote regions where more jobs and income are enjoyed by residents especially in areas where there is limited access to lesser alternatives for income generation. The industry of ecotourism has accumulated millions of dollars for different local governments and as such has been one of the healthiest industries worldwide. In fact the International Ecotourism Society reported that that it has been growing at a 300 percent rate compared to the whole industry of tourism (Mellgren, Doug 2007). Like any other industry, ecotourism entails costs and benefits that practitioners have to carefully weigh. What is distinct with this industry is that its costs heavily depend on natural resources and the management of them. With such feature, the resources of the industry are very limited and is hardly impossible if not completely impossible to manually or even with technology to proliferate. For example, we cannot make another forest once a forest area has already been damaged. We cannot dig another beach or ocean once the other has already been severely exploited. The industry therefore requires extra careful management. â€Å"Ecotourism is an enlightening nature travel experience that contributes to conservation of the ecosystem, while respecting the integrity of host communities† (Canadian Environmental Advisory Council 1992). This definition of ecotourism suggests several principles that should be involved in the industry (Wight, Pamela 1993): 1. There should be environmentally sound development which requires that there be no degradation of the natural resources by all means; 2. There should be proper education availed by the participants in the industry which include the government, the NGOs, the tourists and the community; 3. There should be a respect of the environment and its intrinsic value which extends to the recognition of its limits; 4. The industry should encourage the partnership of all the players; 5. The partnership of the players should promote ethical, cultural and social responsibilities of each; 6. There should be a serious consideration of the long-term benefits and impacts, both economic and non-economic, in the industry and the community and; 7. There must be a responsible conservation practices to the internal and external operations of the industry. The industry of ecotourism can be the operation of nature sports like skiing, surfing, and recreational boating. It may also involve the exploration of the highlands like hiking and trekking. The industry may also involve the operation of maintaining or developing ecoparks in the forests, in the ocean and the highlands. In any of these, the industry involves a great deal of economic, environmental, cultural and social responsibilities. ECOTOURISM AND SUSTAINABILITY The general issue that is faced by the industry of ecotourism is sustainability. Because a great deal of natural resources is directly involved in the operation, experts in the industry, operators and practitioners are being challenged to weigh the cost and benefits of getting into the business of sports and recreation involving nature. Sustainability dictates that the benefits should outweigh the cost of using natural resources. Sustainability therefore entails the consideration of the short-term and long-term effects of exploring the environment. In the industry of ecotourism, the alteration or use and even the disturbance of the ecosystem and biodiversity are a necessity. Any slight or serious effect of any of these means a sacrifice on the part of the living organisms in a certain ecosystem. Sustainability requires the industry professionals to carefully calculate and if possible to have an assurance that the costs of sacrificing the natural resources will be exceeded by the benefits that can be derived from it. It is to be stressed that the calculation should include the long-term effects of doing the business. Therefore profitability does not ensure sustainability nor does economic development entail sustainable development. ISSUES ASSOCIATED WITH ECOTOURISM A. The business of Ecotourism has placed profit motivation of higher importance than environmental conservation We cannot deny the fact that the promotion and development of ecotourism have been products of profit motivation for Ecopark developers and investors. The business of establishing and maintaining tourist spots require a considerable sum of money, knowledge and skills and therefore it is but fair for investors to claim the economic benefits of such investment. The market of ecotourism has been undoubtedly growing and gaining popularity like the United State, Australia and Thailand. In fact the World Tourism Organization estimates that there have been 500 million annual tourist trips conducted worldwide (World Tourism Organization, 1994). In the United States, the industry of ecotourism is dominated by private owners although are also government owned and managed tourist spots (U. S. Department of State, 2003). The economic benefits of the healthy market of ecotourism is overwhelming that tourism and recreation have actually contributed to 3. 3% to 4. 1% of the United States Gross Domestic Product (GDP) in 1997 according to the US Department of State report. The leisure of nature traveling since 195 was reported to have been growing at an annual rate of 15% to 30% according to World Resources Institute. The attractive economic benefits of ecotourism industry can plainly explain the sudden proliferation of such privately owned parks and recreation centers. What is however alarming is the fact that there seem to have been outweigh of economic benefits over the cost of environmental degradation not to mention the negative cultural impacts. In Thailand for example, the government has been blinded by the 53 million baht yield of the trekking in Northern Thailand from about 100 thousand trekkers per year. The over-visitation and commercialization of the hill tribe villages have considerably damaged nature through the construction of permanent huts to accommodate trekkers and littering due to the availability of foodstuffs. The worse scenario is the transfer of such businesses to other mountain areas thereby destroying more of the natural habitat in the mountains of Thailand (Tourism Authority of Thailand 1996). In response to this issue, the government and non-government bodies have been organized to serve as guardians and monitoring eyes of the environment while maintaining the business of ecotourism. It is held important for recreation professionals, especially those engaged in ecotourism to coordinate or work in partnership with these environmental groups and authorities. In Thailand for example, the Tourism Authority of Thailand (TAT) has regulated the tourism visits in the area for study, to enjoy the scenery and for cultural studies. In California, the local government assigned the California Trade and Commerce Agency’s Division of Tourism in the responsibility of taking over the business of looking into the sustainability of ecotourism in the area. Partnership with these agencies, especially when professionals are into private business, will help in the drafting of programs for business development. For example, if recreation professionals are well informed with the affairs and regulations of the local government agencies, future or possible conflict of interest will be avoided. Even if professionals are faced with the impression that they are reaping the economic benefits of ecotourism, partnership with the local environmental agencies will help ease the issue. This of course entails that professionals has to really account and seriously consider the environmental impacts of every activity in order for the business to last long rather than exploring another area when the former has already been damaged. Primarily, environmental and social responsibilities are major considerations in the practice of any profession. B. There has been observations that larger companies tend to be environmentally conscious than smaller counterparts. Watercraft, recreational boating, shark chumming, wind and water surfing are the sports and recreational activities that are active in California. Whether these activities are engaged for fun or for serious water sports, the facilities involved in the said activities necessitates considerable amount of dollars. It is therefore but logical that those who can afford to spend much for the proper maintenance of their own facilities are bigger companies. However, this is not the case in Malaysia as golf course development has been one of the major environmental issues faced by the concerned professionals. Golf course development or golf course tourism, being a sport enjoyed by the wealthy people is a multi-billion dollar industry. Forest degradation, water and land pollution issues are embraced by the tourism industry. An analysis made by an economist revealed that an 18-hole golf course consumes 5,000 cubic meters of water everyday costing Malaysian government $7. 5 million for the pipelines that feed water to the golf course resort in Redand Island (Chatterjee, Pratap 1993). Agrochemicals averaging to 1,500 every year are being used annually in such gold courses, 90 percent of which contribute to air pollution. Pesticides and fertilizers account for the massive destruction of marine life aside from the deforestation and soil erosion caused by the establishment of such recreational and tourism sites. The challenge therefore is not the accumulation of much economic resources in order to support proper maintenance of their facilities but the challenge of taking social and environmental responsibility. The burden of immediate action against these environmental problems is placed primarily in the hands of the government who has always the supreme power to draft and pass laws that will regulate such activities. The involvement of the government in ecotourism will ensure that everything and everybody will work together for a well balanced ecosystem. This writer believes that banning environmental recreation and tourism will help solve the existing environmental degradation. Ecotourism, whether owned and managed by the government, small and large companies, professionals are faced with the challenge of ensuring that every business endeavor is environment friendly regardless of the economic benefits it contributes to the locality. Rules and regulations must be implemented and everyone is compelled to obey.

The anthropology of globalization cultural anthropology enters the 21st century Essay

Cultural Anthropology Introduction Are Quang dab peg and epilepsy the same thing?   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Throughout the book, the two words are interpreted differently. They seem to mean the same thing as it can be seen through Lia, whereby the Staff of the Merced Hospital conclude that Lia is suffering from Epilepsy, which further translated to Quag dab peg. However, the Hmong culture interpreted this differently. They believed that Quang dab peg is brought by a bad spirit known as dab, which is accountable of stealing the souls of the victims, thus, making the victim suffer. On the other hand, they believed that epilepsy is a western medicine that is used for the treatment of neurological conditions. Though both Quag dab peg and epilepsy has similar symptoms, each culture interpret the symptoms differently. This makes the both of them to appear differently, making the condition of them be different illness that requires different treatment. Drawing from â€Å"The Spirit Catches You†, the Hmong culture holds that the Quag dab peg as a condition with honor whereby the thoughts of the victim has authority to perceive things that are not visible to other people (Fadiman, 20).Therefore, regardless of the perception of the two cultures, the symptoms of the disease that Lia is suffering from is a clear indication that they are the same, thus, the two words, Quagdabs peg and epilepsy represents the same thing. How doctors and TXIVneebs fix bodies and souls in the book â€Å"The Spirit Catches You†   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Drawing from the book, â€Å"The Spirit Catches You†, the doctors and the TXIVneebs were responsible for healing the patients. In both cultures, they used different approaches in line with their understanding about the illness. As such, the methods of the doctors caring for Lia is different from the method her parents would have taken. The doctor feels that, Lia conditions to treat her epilepsy is through writing her prescription and giving her dosages. Though the doctors did not understand how frequent to administer the drug, Lia’s parent also holds that it is not right to give their daughter too many tablets. Nevertheless, they opted for traditional Hmong medicine, including herbal and coin. Moreover, Lees also seek assistance of a Shaman, which is a type of alternative medicine famous among Asian-Americans. How the doctors perceived to treat the Lia’s condition was different from her parents’ perception. Wish ing to utilize Shamans goes with their believe about the symptoms of epilepsy. Shamans usually define their patients as missing intact souls and work to diagnose and treat the condition that cannot be treated by a physician (Fadiman, 28). Through this healing method, it is extremely distinct from the traditional forms of healthcare found in America. Lees prefer this method because of their cultural background, but despite the variation in the methods of healing, both the Lia’s and the Lees doctors conclude that they all want Lia to restore her health. Both the doctors are concerned about the end result of the disease as well as the well being of Lia.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In Hmong culture, the Quag dab peg it treated through shamanic rituals whereby the TXIV were responsible for carrying out the ritual. A TXIVneeb treated the patients on a metaphysical plane as in the case of Lia, whereby Lia’s rituals were usually carried to lure her soul back to her in order to restore her welfare. A TXIV placed a bowl containing sacred water in Lia’s room in the anticipation that her soul would come back. Moreover, they would sacrifice pigs in her parents house and place string on Lia’s wrist so as to keep the soul from escaping. Lia’s doctor could not understand the concept of soul loss in the way the TXIV need to understand to negotiate for Lia’s souls. This was one of the things that brought misunderstanding of both cultures. The cause of Lia illness was misinterpreted by both the doctors and her parents, the belief of Lia’s parents was that Lia was suffering from Quag dab peg while the doctors believed that Lia was suffering from epilepsy. As a result, Lia parents opt to take Lia to tivxneebs for traditional treatment. On the other hand, the doctors contend that Lia condition can only be controlled through antiepileptic medications, which they gave her. The contradictory paradigms of each member bring about misunderstanding of the disease. As a result, different methods for treating Lia are suggested for Lia welfare. For example, Lia’s parents failed to provide Lia with medications because they felt it would harm her, and decided to take Lia to TXIV when she grow up.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   However, in both cases, the TXIV and doctor’s requirements were only the same in the fact that they both contacted the house through calls. The work of the doctor is to treat the physical symptoms. In this case, Lia’s epileptic symptoms were treated with different medication such as phenobarbital and Dilantin, whereby the dosages were directed though writing the prescription. Following the above case and given the problems that Lees had, do you think, as Fadiman asks that the â€Å"gulf† between these worlds is unbridgeable?   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In my opinion, we cannon holds that the world is unbridgeable. It is only a matter of examining the problems as they occur. Taking Lia case, the doctors held that she was suffering from epilepsy, while the society held that it was Quang dab peg. This was just at this time whereby the statement can hold. In the modern world the breakthrough has developed, which also continues to develop. When Fadina was phrasing the question, she was caught between two different cultures that holds different views. There was complete discord between the doctors and the Hmong(Fadiman, 259).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The hospital staff saw as if Lia’s parent were not caring for her health, but the fact is that they cared and wanted to take her to a traditional doctor, which they had been using. Besides, her mother has been preparing salves for her every day. Therefore, it is clear that the world is bridgeable, though it depends on the people’s perception. It is a matter of time and knowledge in the usage of something, but there will always be a breakthrough in the world. Besides, it is clear that man cannot heal by science alone, there can be other form of mechanisms that can deliver treatment effectively through the cooperation between the doctor and the patient as seen through the tivxneebs doctors. People always seek for the best results to restore their life, regardless of the professionalism, but in the case for Lia, it is just because of the unbridgeable cultural gulf whereby the blame for what and who should have done the treatment should be attached ((Fadiman, 256). Some of the specific practical examples of people/groups that are trying to â€Å"bridge the gulf† in the life or the soul†   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   One of the relevant group that bridge the gulf in the life is the medical groups. Drawing from Fadiman claims that teaching medicine to students is a perfect job of separating students from their emotions, the various methods that are applied by medical doctors to prevent and treat illness provide the best treatment from traditional forms of treatment. The medical group spendstheir efforts and energy in research so as to provide solutions to problems that affect the society. In most cases, they come up with solutions concerning deadly disease that takes peoples life. For example, they have been able to develop measures for preventing HIV/AIDS, whereby a victim of HIV/AIDS can survive by just taking Antiretriviral drugs (ARVs). The medical groups have provided more attention since the Fadiman book was published because it incited doctors to concentrate on their profession ((Fadiman, 201).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Considering Lia last diagnoses, a health care professional who struggled for almost twelve hours to control her condition did not even noticed her sex. The physician was so dedicated to safe Lia’s life and it might be the reason that Lia survived. This shows clearly that the medical group bridge the gulf in order for the victim to survive. In most cases, the medical group does not sleep, they keep awake trying to provide services to the patients all the time.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Lia was the first Hmong to have ever heard of being treated by different doctors with the aim of saving her life. Most nurses and doctors sacrificed their energy and time to help her get well, although after all she died. Lia’s condition established the turning point to bridge the gulf for the medical group. She was the catalyst for bridging the gulf in minds and hearts and institutions and policies that impact them, thus, contributing to one of the cultural shifts whose root becomes more obscure the more its impact is experienced.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The traditional groups also provide their sacred services with the mere aim of bridging the gulf of life. Through Lia’s case, it is apparent that the TXIVneeb dedicated their effort trying to negotiate for Lia’s life. The TXIV also dedicated their time to cooperate with Lia in the negotiation process. Moreover, the TXIV conducts an effective session of psychological therapy for Lia. Therefore, the traditional groups are also concerned about the life or the soul of the victim and hadly struggle to restore the soul. References Fadiman, Anne. The spirit catches you and you fall down: a Hmong child, her American doctors, and the collision of two cultures. New York: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux, 1997. Print. Barnard, A. (1998). Encyclopedia of social and cultural anthropology. London: Routledge. Haviland, W. (1996).Cultural anthropology (8th ed.). Fort Worth: Harcourt Brace College. Lewellen, T. (2002).The anthropology of globalization cultural anthropology enters the 21st century. Westport, Conn.: Bergin & Garvey. Barnard, A. (1998). Encyclopedia of social and cultural anthropology. London: Routledge. Haviland, W. (1996).Cultural anthropology (8th ed.). Fort Worth: Harcourt Brace College. Lewellen, T. (2002).The anthropology of globalization cultural anthropology enters the 21st century. Westport, Conn.: Bergin & Garvey. Source document

Montclair State University Essay

Negative changes in financial conditions can disturb even the most flexible individual. Mixed this with a death of a loved one and one is more likely to perform below expectations. These were the events that led to the drop in my GPA. In the Fall of 2004, my father informed me that he would stop providing for my education. This had been a surprise since because he promised to help me out with my studies until I finish college. He was doing well financially that I couldn’t understand why he made that decision. He didn’t even offer an explanation and he refused to talk to me about it. In a snap of a finger, he had cut me off his life. After that massive blow, I get myself together and went on with my life. I took two jobs to pay for my education. I lived with my grandparents to save on the rent. I struggled to finish the school year out and I did. However, the new role that I have to assume, that is being the sole provider for myself had stressed me so much that my GPA suffered. And as they say, when it rains, it pours. In 2005, my grandmother died and my grandfather was diagnosed with a lung cancer. I spent the year coping with what seemed to me a mocking twist of fate. During that time, my main goal was to survive each day. I was oblivious to what is happening around me. The plans I had for my future seemed to belong to another lifetime. Fortunately, in January 2006, things began to pick up. I started to do some volunteer work. During my free time, I am a volunteer EMT for the Maplewood first aid squad. I loved it from the moment I started. It gave me a new zest for life. Helping others made me feel good about myself. I realized that I can always be of service to others despite my own constraints. Fate rewarded this effort after a few months. In September 2006, I became a visiting student in Montclair State University for the school year 2006-2007. I was anxious at first but I soon found my place. It felt like coming come. During my stay as a visiting student, the students and the faculty members of Montclair University didn’t treat me as outsider. They were very warm and friendly. They made me want to stay. This is my reason for wanting to transfer to this university. My stay also provided me with a glimpse of the quality of education in MSU. And based on my experience, I would say that MSU offers a high quality education at an affordable price. Given my current situation, I believe that transferring to this university is the best investment I could make for my future. I also think that I could be a good investment for MSU if it admits me as I am a very determined, hardworking and innovative person. These were the qualities that made me triumph over adversity and I believe that these same traits would make me excel in whatever field I have chosen for myself.

Lions Den Sports Bar & Billiards (Business Plan) Research Paper

Lions Den Sports Bar & Billiards (Business Plan) - Research Paper Example Lion’s Den will run under single proprietorship, with top managers running the various facets of the business. Management wishes to establish the business by means of coordinated marketing and operational execution that will solidify name recognition, and appreciation for the concept. The efforts include both above-the-line and below-the-line advertising, face to face communication and focused strategies. With the marketing plan taking care of drawing the crowd into the business, the operations team will further strengthen client relationship by providing excellent customer service, exemplified by stringent operating guidelines, and up to date employee training and extensive product research. Its expansion plans also prompts management to focus on good inventory management, investing only on fast-moving goods and at the same time, not fearful of experimenting on new trends to find out which fit the target market. The sports bar business will compete in terms of facilities by offering the most number of televisions in the city, and a state of the art table top audio control to give the customers the comfort of being able to listen to his program without the interference of other clients, or without having to wait for the assistance of the service crews. There will also be top-of-the line sports facilities that include billiard tables and dart boards, a mini arcade and a concept bar that are both comfortable and edgy in nature. Clients will feel at ease, and at the same time, be entertained the programs, facilities, visuals and food that the restaurant offers. Lion’s Den will also capitalize on Information Technology and computers to provide the best facilities to the target market. It plans to further expand its business by opening more branches in neighboring cities in the next five years. New Jersey has the most number of malls

Role of Shareholders Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Role of Shareholders - Essay Example However, state laws and company bylaws determine the areas in which shareholders are entitled to vote Shareholder powers One of the main areas where shareholders are generally entitled to use their power is the election of the board members who are the â€Å"agents† of the corporation. The board of directors â€Å"acts on behalf of the shareholders† and is responsible for the maximization of shareholder value by incorporating appropriate policies through the managers they select for corporate operations (Reference for Business 2012). Any fundamental change which the organization plans to incorporate needs to be approved by the shareholders before implementation (Miller 2012). This implies that they have the power to approve a merger, change or amend the articles of incorporation of a firm, affect the sale of all or part of the company’s assets or even approve the dissolution of the corporation (Ronen and Yaari 2007). However, in many of such decisions prior board approval is required. They not only have the power to choose the members of the board of Directors but also to vote against them if found to be inefficient and remove them from the board. Generally a director is removed if there is sufficient cause for voting him out. However, certain state statutes and corporate articles allow their removal without any cause (Miller 2012). This means that if majority of shareholders feel that a particular director is not required, they can vote him /her out of office without giving any justification for their action. Shareholders can impact a company policy by proposing their own ideas for shareholder vote. However, for this they need to present their idea to the board of directors and ask them to distribute it to all the shareholders before the shareholder meeting by including it in the proxy papers sent to them (Miller 2012). However, this power is limited by the fact that SEC (Securities and Exchange Commission) has set a limit to who can forwa rd these proposals. As per SEC, only those shareholders who have stocks worth at least $1000 can submit such proposals (Miller 2012). This submission is also limited by the fact that the proposal should be related to some noteworthy policy concern and not any ordination day to day operational consideration (Ronen and Yaari 2007). Thus, we can see that though the shareholders have the powers to affect change, they are limited in their use of power. In general, each shareholder has voting rights in proportion to the number of shares held by him/ her. However, the company can limit the voting rights of certain categories of shareholders (Miller 2012). For example, most organizations do not give voting rights to preferred shareholders. The companies can do this by incorporating the same in the articles of incorporation. However, if the laws of the State of operation do not allow such provisions, then the organization has to abide by the law. Some times preemptive rights are granted to s hareholders. This gives them the right to subscribe to the â€Å"same percentage of new shares being issued as they already hold in the company† (Miller 2012). This helps them to maintain their â€Å"proportionate control† over the organization in terms of voting power and financial interest (Miller 2012). The implication of this right is significant when the organizati

Critical analysis of the issues effecting global ecological integrity Essay

Critical analysis of the issues effecting global ecological integrity and how they impact on the health of populations - Essay Example Mcmichael (2001) defined the development of human frontiers geographic, climatic, and intellectual and technical has met many setbacks from disease, starvation and deteriorating resources. The communal and ecological revolutions wrought by agrarianism, industrialization, fertility control, social transformation, urbanization and mass utilization have intensely exaggerated patterns of health and disease. These days, as life expectancies rise, the planet's ecological units are being dented by the combined weight of populace size and exhaustive economic activity. Global warming, stratospheric ozone diminution and loss of biodiversity cause large-scale risks to human health and endurance. Human population and individual health eventually depend on the veracity of ecosystems and the ecosphere (i.e., without an environment competent of supporting life, no population and, hence, no health can exist). Healthy populations can subsist in restricted environments that have lost their ecological integrity such as most urban constituency only if healthy ecosystems subsist elsewhere to sustain them. This is a purpose of technology and trade and is a trait of human culture that exceptionally differentiates humans from other animal genus reliant on their local environments. That is, human health can be retained by healthy ecosystems (or, at least, productive ones) elsewhere. In this technique, the local population inflicts its ecological footprint on the global commons and on other regions or countries (Rees and Wackernagel 1996; Wackernagel and Rees 1996; Rees 1996, 1997; Pimentel et al. 2000). This interregional dependency can unclear the connection linking people and their health with the health of ecosystems. "To help define shared perceptions of long-term environmental issues and the appropriate efforts needed to deal successfully with the problems of protecting and enhancing the environment, a long-term agenda for action during the coming decades, and aspirational goals of the world community." (Bruntland 1987: ix). It is improbable that increasing "footprints" are sustainable in the long run. The ideas of global commons, ecological health, ecological health, ecology health, ecological integrity and disintegrity, and the like, usually relate to the situation of the biosphere that supports life. Indicators have been developed by agencies such as the World Wildlife Fund (WWF) (WWF 1998) as standard measures that offer a sense of the health of environmental life support systems.

Death penalty should not exist as a punishment for murder or terrorism Essay

Death penalty should not exist as a punishment for murder or terrorism - Essay Example Countries like the United States have retained the death penalty punishment for murder and terrorism convicts in the country. Though the categories of murder may differ, cold blood murder or homicides suspects are faced with death penalty in the United States. Though the death penalty continues to become unpopular in different parts of the world including Europe and even the United States itself, some countries have retained it. The united states, for example, continue to send murder convicts to the gallows through various ways as captured in the country’s penal code (Barner 2014). Human rights activists across the globe have continually argued that the death penalty is illegal and against the universal bill of rights and should be abandoned. Such discussions have created different opinions towards this emotive topic as opponents and proponents argue against and for the death penalty. Though some states in the United States have shown intentions of abandoning the death penalty, others have stick to the tradition, arguing that murder convicts have no right to life. To fully understand and develop a common position on this topic, there is need for a deep research on the topic (Fletcher 2014).

Compare constitutional protections of aboriginal rights in Canada to Essay

Compare constitutional protections of aboriginal rights in Canada to comparable rights protections in another country with an indigenous population - Essay Example dispensation in Canada indicate that the Canadian government has demonstrated interest in creating clauses that would not only promote the rights of the aboriginals, but also group them under a special category which would enable the community to enjoy government protection. In a bid to illustrate the involvement of various governments in protecting the rights of aboriginals, the paper would compare the constitutional protection of the aboriginal rights in Canada and Australia. Both Australian constitution and Canadian constitution recognizes the aboriginal community and the Torres Straight Islanders. This step is critical in strengthening the rights of the aboriginal community in the two countries. However, the constitution of respective countries seems to project or define the extent of protection that it can provide to the aboriginal community. For instance, in both cases, the constitution of the two countries stipulates that it will promote the culture and tradition of the aboriginal community in the present time and in the future. According to the provision of this clause, the constitution defines the protection of the cultural activities of the aboriginal community (Uribe, 2004:1-18). The cultural right includes indigenous practices and traditions that are synonymous with the indigenous community. The enactment of the section 35(1), Constitutional Act 1982 of the Canadian constitution does not only recognize, but also affirms the existence of the aboriginal treaty rights. The Supreme Court decision in the sparrow case indicated that the section 35(1) has set new dimension of protecting the rights of the aboriginals. Available literature indicates that it supersedes the colonial landmarks, which barred the Canadian aboriginal from some fundamental rights (Uribe, 2004:1-18). On the contrary, the Australian constitution fails to demonstrate the protection of the Indigenous rights. The Kruger’s case is one of the historical instances where the protection of

G H 402 Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words - 1

G H 402 - Assignment Example This document examines various ethical, economic, political and moral issues presented by e-health technologies across the globe. There are various ethical concerns about e-health technologies. For instance, there is concern about accessibility and affordability of the information among different users. The e-healthcare information should be accessible to all users cost effectively (Anastasius 58). However, there is concern about the accessibility of such information considering that many people lack access to the internet which is very critical for accessing electronic resources. The cost of obtaining such information may have reduced in terms of money, but how about the quality of the services offered to the users? There are various concerns about the privacy and confidentiality of the user information. The healthcare profession requires the patients’ information to be treated with much confidentiality and should be shared with third parties only with the patient’s consent. With a use of information communication technology (ICT) in a provision of healthcare services, there is an increasing con cern about the protection of user information (Anastasius 59). Furthermore, there is an issue of laws that are applicable in case in the event of breach of patient’s rights in the use of e-health services. In addition, the use of e-health services raises an issue of credibility of the information offered electronically (Anastasius 59). While professional and legal measures ensure the protection of patients’ information against unauthorized disclosure, the use of electronic health exposes patients to greater risk of loss of privacy of information. Health care providers should be morally responsible for ensuring the information they give to online users is credible and accurate while ensuring safety of users information (Anastasius 60). Healthcare has the political connotation in every nation because, in some instances, it is

The poets of Vultures and Two Scavengers in a Truck, Two Beautiful People in a Mercedes Essay Example for Free

The poets of Vultures and Two Scavengers in a Truck, Two Beautiful People in a Mercedes Essay In these two poems, Achebe and Ferlinghetti question human nature and the way we think of it as virtuous and moral. In Vultures Achebe argues that evil is innate in humans and is very much more widespread than the tiny good that is in our nature. He uses two vultures and the Commandant of a Nazi Death Camp to powerfully describe evil in nature, but contrasts this with love contained in it. Ferlinghetti, however, also links cruelty to modern society, and further argues that this cruelty, causing the rift between people, is present in even a free society such as Americas. He focuses on one instant of time where two pairs of people of totally different classes are connected by the whole fabrication of society, of injustice and inequality, while stopping next to each other at a red light. Although the poems are similar in the issues that they tackle, it is apparent that the poets argue them in different ways. In this essay I shall explore the, often differing, ways in which the poets discuss these issues. In Vultures, Achebe starts the poem in a dull and deathly mood to outline the grim and evil atmosphere of his poem. This is interpreted by the reader to imply that evil is present everywhere, as the place that the poem is set in is full of evil. In the greynessa vulture perching high on broken bone of a dead tree These lines set the scene for the rest of the poem, and because they so inherently remind the reader of death, the reader immediately feels the poem will be grim. This has been used because of this, as Achebe, in his argument, wants to remind us that evil is ever-present. As death brings about the feeling of evil and suffering, these opening lines are effective at introducing and outlining the argument. Broken bone being used to describe the branches of the tree is particularly effective, because it reminds the reader of pain and suffering. The dead tree is also used, and as these two describe where the vulture is perching, this further associates the vulture with death, adding to the fact that it is a vulture and so feeds on rotting carcasses. The dullness is brought about by the word greyness. This suggests that the dawn is not beautiful or colourful, but is bland and unemotional. The colour grey makes the reader imagine a scene which is almost akin to a black and white photograph of a scene a dull, slow atmosphere that is reminiscent of death. The atmosphere of the poem, set in the beginning, therefore, outlines the theme of evil that is in this poem. The whole context of the poem is symbolising evil, and this overall suggests that evil is ever-present. This is part of Achebes argument. Ferlinghetti, however, starts the poem differently. The start of Two Scavengers in a Truck, Two Beautiful People in a Mercedes (hereafter to be referred to as Two Scavengers) is more upbeat and optimistic. This is ironical, and therefore implies that the happiness in society is not true. At the stoplight waiting for the light nine a.m. downtown San Francisco At the beginning, a relaxed and happy atmosphere is created by Ferlinghetti. The word downtown creates a relaxed atmosphere. This is made even more so because waiting for the light is an ordinary thing to do. However, this is deeply ironical, because the title of the poem is more serious and shows clear and immediate contrasts Scavengers are far away from Beautiful People and a Truck is very different and much less luxurious than a Mercedes. The use of Scavengers in the title also implies that the poem is serious. Therefore the reader, having read the title before the beginning of the poem, is meant to see this, and see that this happiness is unreal. Ferlinghetti, by doing this, suggests that although some wealthier people in the society have nothing to worry about, many people are unhappy and are succumbed, just as observers are, that life in his society is wonderful and easy. By letting the reader deduce this, Ferlinghetti makes his argument more personal, and includes the reader as the observer of his society. This integrates him/her more into the poem, thus making the introduction to his argument about inequality and cruelty more effective. Ferlinghetti then goes on to describe the ease of the lifestyle of the wealthier couple, contrasting it with the intense hard work of the garbage men. This shows that there are always two sides, and for the people that enjoy life many people suffer, and the suffering always exists. The young blond woman so casually coifed on the way to his architects office And the two scavengers up since four a.m. grungy from their route The words used to describe the wealthier couple suggest that they are much more relaxed and that life is easier for them. Casually coifed especially suggests that the woman is relaxed. The alliteration is used so that the phrase flows easily. This represents the life of the wealthy couple it is described to be easy and pleasant. However, this is in total contrast to the garbage men. The fact that they have been up since four a.m. suggests that their work is hard and physically demanding as few jobs require the workers to wake up at 4 a.m. Grungy also suggests that their work is demanding but also dirty. These, overall, show how the garbage men suffer so much but do not get rewarded nearly as much as man in the wealthy couple, who is on the way to his architects office. The word his suggests that he is the boss and is in control. This contrasts to the garbage men, who are described as scavengers. As scavengers feed off the leftovers and detritus of other animals, this suggests that these garbage men only have what other people leave behind and kick down to them. These contrasts clearly show how Ferlinghetti argues that society is cruel, and especially to the people that work so hard for it. Cruelty is omnipresent. Achebe also uses contrasts to show contrasts in human nature. Where Ferlinghetti links theses to society, Achebe links these contrasts to basic natural instincts. In Vultures there are contrasts between love and evil. Although the mating vultures perform actions which are disgusting and vile, they still show love and care for each other. feathers inclined affectionately to hers. Yesterday they picked The eyes of a swollen corpse The statement of love is mentioned before the detailed descriptions of the actions of the vultures. This implies that their love takes precedence, and that it is what the vultures themselves are thinking about rather than what they did to the carcass. The eating of the carcass is described explicitly and in full detail by Achebe. By this he is showing the disgusting horrid behaviour and instincts of the vultures. He describes how the picked the eyes of a swollen corpse. This is particularly powerful as the verb picking does not bear any resemblance to humans eating. This phrase (picking the eyes) makes the reader think of cruel and inhumane forms of torture, and therefore makes this image even more disturbing, even though the animal is dead. Furthermore, animals dead bodies are usually referred to as carcasses, however, by using corpse Achebe has related this more to humans further depicting the cruel and horrible nature of the vultures, making it more personal and even more disgusting to the reader. By directly contrasting the image of love and affection to one of the most repulsive sights imaginable, Achebe gives one point of his argument, that in all evil there is love. Contrarily, though, by using powerful imagery, it is evident that the nature of the vultures will not be forgotten by the reader, and it will not be merely overridden by their love. After that, however, Vultures describes cruelty in humans, which is more intense, as vultures always feed on carcasses. Achebe uses a figure that is almost synonymous with evil the Commandant at a Nazi Death Camp to show this contrast between love and evil. However, this also shows more clearly how much more evil there is than love. Thus the Commandant at Belsen Camp going home for the day with fumes of human roast clinging rebelliouslyand pick up a chocolate for his tender offspring The image used is just as repulsive as that of the vultures. The word roast makes the reader think of food, and this especially makes the image repulsive, as the reader is shocked at how this evil figure cam live with this. It does make the reader think of cannibalistic behaviour, as roast is used after many other meats. Because human roast is used the reader would think it is ordinary for it to be called this and is therefore furthermore horrified. Tender offspring suggests that they are just meat, like the people that were killed by the Commandant. The word tender in this context is furthermore repulsive, because it is used after human roast and makes the reader imagine it is being used in this context. However, as offspring is used to describe the children of animals, this is also a reference back to the vultures. This suggests that even a humans behaviour is animalistic and it is in his nature, even though he may be seen as evil. Most readers would find that the Commandant at Belsen is more evil than the vultures, as vultures always feed off carcasses. However, this link back to animals, with offspring makes the reader question whether all creation is purely evil, regardless of what species there are and how much love they have for something else. This further implies that evil is always predominant over other characteristics such as love. This is another one of Achebes points in his argument that suggests that human nature, and the nature of all creation, is predominantly built upon cruelty. With this contrast, showing a loving family man, Achebe indirectly asks the reader whether they think his evil is redeemable, and therefore if they would forgive the Commandant at Belsen because of his love for his child(ren). Because of the obvious answer of no, it makes the reader feel that there is a lot more evil in him than good, and this can be said for the entire world. This poem, and especially lines 30-40, also reflects the state of affairs within the world. As it implies that Nazism is synonymous with evil, it gives Nazism a real place in literature. Therefore the mention of Nazism is in context with this poem, and Achebe has carefully chosen to include this to express the horrors of the Nazi regime. This is a point for his argument in this poem, but also a tribute to (the victims of) Nazism. It makes the evil of it have an eternal place, which will not be forgotten. This is an example of which literature is affected by affairs in the real world. It therefore furthermore makes the reader agree with Achebes argument, as it is supported by major events in the real world. In Two Scavengers, there is also a reference to death and sacrifice. One of the garbage men is compared to Quasimodo, from the Hunchback of Notre Dame, also because of his hunched back. and hunched back looking down like some gargoyle Quasimodo In these lines, the older garbage man is compared to Quasimodo, as he has a hunched back. However there is also another meaning to this at a deeper level. Quasimodo sacrificed himself to save the beautiful image of Paris. The reference to Quasimodo here also therefore suggests that these garbage men are sacrificing themselves in order to preserve the beautiful image of America that they all aspire to be in, but cannot. The fact that they are watching the couple is highlighted by the fact that he is looking down. The comparison to Quasimodo suggests the moral superiority of the garbage men, as they are facing the cruelty of society that is rarely reported and that people in general do not care about, unless they are suffering themselves. This is similar to Quasimodo. Also, the fact that he is also compared to a gargoyle suggests that these people are also the one that care for society, working physically harder and not getting rewarded as much as the people whom they aspire to be. The watching over them is not only a direct reference to the height difference between the truck and the Mercedes, however, and this suggests that they are part of the people looking after the society, integral to it. Because of this, as they are suffering, and being cruelly and unequally treated, Ferlinghetti argues that these morally wrong values are not just present, but a large integral part of the whole society. At the end of their poems, both poets conclude with statements that show cruelty is always going to be part of humans and society. Vultures end with an open conclusion which asks the reader to decide, however it is clear that one conclusion is stronger. Praise bounteousthat grants even an ogre a tiny glow-worm tenderness encapsulated in icy caverns of a cruel heart or else despair for in the very germ of that kindred love is lodged the perpetuity of evil. After presenting his argument, Achebe gives the reader a choice to be glad and praise bounteous the love that does exist. However, the first statement shows that love is mostly tiny and encapsulated in icy caverns. This is a particularly powerful phrase because it suggests that love is only small and is surrounded by all of the evil in the world. However, the poem does give the reader a choice, and the other statement is that all of humanity should be concerned and frightened at how the relatively small love in the world is nothing in the face of the infinite evil in human nature. In the very germ means in the smallest seed, and in the heart of. This implies that all of love is just a small part of evil which makes up most of the world. The word perpetuity, which is also used in science and mathematics emphasises the effect that evil is constant and never ends. Overall, in this poem, the second conclusion is by far the stronger, as more powerful words like kindred (close to the blood, essential). It is evident that Achebe wants us to leave the poem knowing that even if people have love in their hearts, they cannot stop committing evil. We must despair at the fact that our world is filled with so much evil and cruelty, and how in human nature the love that exists is overwhelmed by the evil within. The very fact that we should be scared of the never-ending evil shows how stronger the second statement is. In Two Scavengers, Ferlinghetti ends by mocking the American dream, and by using his previous link of cruelty to society, using these examples, he finishes by showing the variation in society. as if they were watching some odorless TV ad in which everything is always possible as if anything at all were possible between them across the small gulf in the high seas of this democracy The American dream is what the American society aspires of its citizens. According to the constitution, Any American can become president. However, Ferlinghetti concludes his argument strongly disagreeing with this statement, and persuades the reader to do the same. The reference to the odourless TV ad shows how much advertising has affected the American people, that they were thinking like the advertisement in their real lives. The word odourless suggests that it is fake, plastic. This is the American dream. The TV ad is an illusion from reality. This directly relates how the American dream is just an illusion. Nothing is odourless. Also Ferlinghetti has used irony for entertainment to engage the reader further as the garbage mens jobs are the direct opposite of odourless. The line after in the extract is more powerful than the first, and shows how the American dream is really a dream. It is sarcastic as if anything at all were possible suggests that they did, for that instant, go into the illusion that it was possible to become what they aspired to be. However Ferlinghetti mocks this and therefore highly criticizes the American dream and the motives of the American Constitution it was lying to the people. The small gulf is also a pun, as it means the physical distance between the four people, but also the large gap in class and wealth between the two pairs of people a gulf is geographically very large. The high seas suggests that it is happening everywhere, as the oceans are very large and cover many areas. This further strengthens the effect of the class gap and also fits in with the entertaining line the small gulf. The last line is also highly critical, as it asks why people are not equal if they are meant to be in the democracy. This line also refers to this as being a problem across the whole of America and the whole society, which further strengthens the argument that all the people are not equal. It strongly and ironically suggests that the democracy is unfair and unjust. These are related to cruelty, as the people of America, Ferlinghetti believes, are being treated cruelly, being wrongly told, and believing that they are all equal, when Ferlinghetti sees clearly that they are not. People are told that they are free in a democracy, but Ferlinghetti, in this poem, argues that this is far from the case. Ferlinghetti and Achebe explore issues within their cultures, and link them to different examples. However, analytically, while their use of language and techniques may not be similar, it must not be forgotten that these poems remind us, and depict, the worst and most scarring side of Mans character, and remind us how misguided and flawed our judgements on ourselves can be. What we must learn from them is that we cannot think ourselves above creation if we show the same repulsive habits as vultures, however slight these may be. Ferlinghetti and Achebe argue that unless we totally conquer the evil and cruelty so centrally bound within us and change the society we have built around them, we cannot call ourselves more than any other being.

Representing Prostitution In Victorian London

Representing Prostitution In Victorian London Nineteenth century England is commonly characterised by the successful expansion of an industrial society. Industrial growth defined the geography, economy and society of Victorian Britain, allowing for further establishment of the British Empire as a controlling and comprehensive Empire. The expansion of the urban society and the migration from rural life to that of the city worked to create a new public, with new social and economical opportunities. From the embers of the Industrial Revolution emerged a new middle-class. Complied of persons from varying economical heritages the new middle-class, those who had achieved significant financial success during the revolution placed themselves under a capitalist philosophy but defined themselves by their strict codes of morality. Such importance was placed upon social morality and respectability that was further clarified by domestic ideologies and clearly defined gender roles. The population of London was five times greater at the end of the nineteenth century than it was at the beginning and at its most explosive nearly tripled in two generations  [2]  . This influx of people moving from rural England to the urban environment of London had a resounding affect on the establishment of the city, socially, economically, politically and geographically. The industrialisation of the city provided many with new opportunities, which were not previously attainable and resulted in the rose of the new middle-class, the effects of which were polarized for many. Despite the vast expansion of other British cities as a result of the Industrial Revolution, namely Manchester, Leeds, Sheffield and Birmingham, London was targeted in contemporary literature as the prime example of an immoral urban environment. London was overwhelmed by the increased population, her foundations struggled to uphold the lifestyle migrants expected, and more often than not they were resolved to a life of hard labour, crime, disease and pollution.  [3]  Images of the lives of the lower and working classes were frequently depicted in the publications of the day, The Illustrated London News, The Graphic, The Saturday Review, The Illustrated Police News and the satirical Punch to name a few. One such image is Houseless and Hungry, 1869 by Samuel Luke Fildes, which, when published in the first edition of The Graphic, depicts a group of poverty stricken Londoners queuing alongside a large brick wall collecting tokens allowing them to stay in the Victorian workhouses overnight.  [4]  This image is in stark contradiction to MIDDLE CLASS ILLUSTRATION. Whilst these images show a distinct extreme in class identity, one can begin understand the varied social identities that circulated within London City in consideration of the following citation; ruling-class debauchee, masturbating adolescent, frigid middle-class housewife, precocious and depraved slum-child; the factory girl with her easy morals, the prostitute, the violated virgin, the lubricious working-class housewife, the incestuous alcoholic, the mothering pimping for her daughters; and more idealised types: fulfilled wife, attentive husband, chaste and informed student, innocent child.  [5]   Barret-Ducrocqs suggestion of Victorian characters shows how varied Victorian London was, and how class and gender affected the roles, which one could adopt within society. It was scarcely unexpected that representations of socially controversial figures found their way into prominent publications and paintings of the day. Chapter Two: The Women of London To understand the anxieties surrounding the figure of the prostitute in Victorian London one must first appreciate how women were regarded during the nineteenth century. Being that nineteenth century society was dominated by the middle-class, a result of the industrial revolution, one must account for social life before the arrival of the Victorian bourgeoisie. Before the development of the middle classes in the mid-early nineteenth century ideologies surrounding domesticity and moral responsibility were less prolific. It was the development, most prominently, of domestic ideology, which resulted in the significant decline of freedom available to women, Women enjoyed considerable freedom, status and authentic function during a golden age for women in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.  [6]  Mid-nineteenth century society, induced by the industrial revolution, was dominated by the concept of separate spheres. The prevailing ideology of separate spheres placed the man in the public environ among industry and politics, while the woman was resided to the private sphere. Thus women, mainly those of the middle classes, were expected to partake in the activities predominantly designated to domesticity. George Hickss triptych Womans Mission, 1863 narrates the concept of the separate spheres in a series, which follows the adult life of a moral and respectable middle-class woman. The use of the triptych form allowed Hicks to portray the varying roles associated with the nineteenth century feminine ideal. As previously stated the feminine ideal was, during the Victorian ear, rooted in the middle-class ideology of domesticity and moral responsibility. Entitled Womans Mission: The Guide to Childhood an image of a young woman partaking in the role of the doting mother begins Hickss series. As the title projects, The woman is defined as both physical and spiritual guide to childhood.  [7]  Neads statement is further encouraged by the symbolism of the woodland pathway along which the mother is tenderly leading her child and the manner in which she protects the child by sheltering him from the brambles. The central, and most well known, image of the triptych reveals a scene of the dedica ted wife tending to her grieving husband. This image known as Womans Mission: Companion of Manhood discloses the expected dynamic between husband and wife of the middle-class. His masculinity is represented as prominently within the image as her femininity is. The husband shows his character to be a moral and respectable male as he shields his weeping eyes from both the audience and his wife. Nineteenth century medical studies on the differences between male and female anatomy cited that women, as a result of their finer nerves, were more sensitive than men. Thus the archetypal Victorian man was widely represented as having control over his emotions and sensitivity.  [8]  The ornaments on the mantelpiece and the silverware on the nearby coffee table coupled with the fine and traditional Victorian middle-class interior support the feminine ideal, of a respectable wife dedicated to the pride of keeping her husbands house within this painting. The woman herself is portrayed as a fi gure of the feminine ideal; she is modestly dressed, in neutral and earthy tones, and leans upon her husband signifying the importance of the male figure within the domestic constitution.  [9]  The final image in the series Womans Mission: Comfort of Old Age shows the same woman as in the previous two scenes, this time, tending to an elderly relative. The prominence of this image is to show the continuity of the feminine ideal as it was expected during the period. The concept of the feminine ideal required at every stage of a middle-class womens life as, a mother, wife and daughter. Originally a doctrine of the middle-class alone, domesticity and the concept of the separate spheres began to infringe the boundaries of the working class. Hicks again narrates this concept in The Sinews of Old England, 1857. This image is similarly composed to Hickss later images Womans Mission where the female also stand alongside her husband leaning upon his left shoulder. Whilst this image shows the concept of the separate spheres in working-class circumstances it does not depict the domesticity and feminine ideal. The woman is decidedly different to that depicted in Womans Mission, her dress alone shows she is not of the middle-class ideal, the front of which is hitched up at the knee and she wears her sleeves rolled to the elbow suggesting she is ready to partake in the manual work common to those of her class. To support the differences suggested by dress are the physical attributes of the women. The lower-class woman reveals strong muscular arms as she rolls up her sleeves an d her complexion suggests someone who partakes in manual, possible outdoor, labour. This is in stark contrast to the petite frame of the middle-class woman who leans upon her husband for support. There are certain similarities between the paintings however. In both images the woman is shown as the keeper of the house, and in both it is the domestic accruements that highlight this ideal, behind the lower-class woman the audience is able to see the interior of the house in front of which she is stood. The similarities between the two images further stretch to the depictions of the men as the stronger gender. While in Womans Mission his masculinity it supported by his hiding tears from the public, the lower-class mans masculinity is show by his facing away from his wife and the domestic sphere and, as critics presumed, towards his source of work.  [10]   With such importance placed upon domesticity, moral responsibility and the feminine ideal by the middle-class it was not surprising that anything or anyone distancing themselves from what was often conceived as the norm or expected was called in to quested by Victorian moralists. The most questionable figure of nineteenth century urban society was that of the prostitute. The figure of the prostitute was not an uncommon one during the nineteenth century, as Dr Ryan, Campbell and Talbot citied, the number of prostitutes within the city was expected to be somewhere close to 80,000.  [11]  A wood engraving from Henry Mayhews London Labour and the London Poor, 1862 entitled The Haymarket-Midnight depicts a scene of London, at the Haymarket, where prostitution and deviant behaviour is plentiful. A social investigation by George Augustus Sala commented on the nocturnal activities of London, when among the socially deviant; A new life begins for London at midnight. Strange shapes appear of men and women who have lain a-bed all the day and evening, or have remained torpid in holes and corners. They come out arrayed in strange and fantastic garments, and in glaringly gaslit rooms screech and gabble in wild revelry. The street corners are beset by night prowlers. Phantoms arrayed in satin and lace flit upon the sight. The devil puts a diamond ring on his taloned finger, sticks a pin in his shirt; and takes his walks abroad. It is a stranger sight than even the painter Raffet imagined in his picture of Napoleons midnight review, and it is, I think, a much better thing to be at home and in bed, than wandering about and peeping into the mysteries of this unholy London night life.  [12]   What must be understood is that not all prostitutes were deviant figures for comparable reasons. The definition of prostitution was vast and varied according to where in society the figure was operating. Henry Mayhew in London Labour and the London Poor cites six different categories of prostitute; kept mistresses and prima donnas, convives who were separated into those subject to a mistress and those independent, low lodging house women, sailors and soldiers women, park women and thieves women.  [13]  Each of which, whilst remaining a deviant and immoral figure, certified their own social interpretation. Victorian representation of prostitution primarily focused on the lower class women of the city, however certain attention was given to women of the middle-classes who by some form of bad fortune found themselves in the world of prostitution. Known as fallen women those who transgressed the conventions of the middle-class, who negated domesticity and whose moral identity was dam aged caused particular anxieties for contemporaries. Known to be a society of sexual prudery, in reaction to the foundations laid by the new middle-class, Victorian society had to find a method of understanding and representing this ever developing social evil. Abraham Solomons representation Drowned! Drowned!, 1860 eloquently epitomises the varying discourses surrounding the figure of the mid-Victorian prostitute. Drowned! Drowned! was exhibited at the Royal Academy in 1860, the year of its execution. Having previously painted two social commentaries, which were also exhibited at the Royal Academy, Solomon hoped that this work would finally acclaim his name as a prominent painter of social modernity.  [14]  The work however received a number of reviews, which frequently shifted between positive and negative. At one end of the scale his work was championed, receiving awards for its contemporary relevance, while at the other it was seriously criticised. Originally created as an oil painting, Drowned! Drowned! is now only in existence as a wood engraving. The image depicts a woman, whom one immediately associates with prostitution, being pulled from the River Thames. Solomon has provided viewers with an easily interpreted image portraying the devastating effects of social immorality. The environment around the prostitutes body is laden with symbolic imagery devoted to offering viewers an enveloping narrative of the circumstances in which the woman fell to such a degree of demise. The image illustrates the prostitutes body now settled on the riverbank at Westminster, easily identified by the commonly represented Bridge of Sighs in the background. Her body is laid up against that of a lower-class woman, who in reaction gazes down at the lifeless body, an expression of grief across her face. The prostitutes figure held in the womans arms emulates the form of the Pieta  [15]  . This traditional symbolism is pivotal in representing th e prostitute as a victim within the picture. By admitting moral symbolism into the image, Solomon portrays the representation of juxtaposed morals within Victorian society. The prostitutes social and moral downfall is highlighted prominently in the figures surrounding her dead body, which further act as instruments in this depiction of juxtaposing morals. To the right of the dead prostitute is a group of lower-class citizens, whilst to the left of the dead figure stand a group from middle-class boasting costumes from a masquerade ball. Here we see two groups of stereotypical Victorian characters, which seen together increase the power of the image by allowing not only a statement of the importance of morality but also providing the scene with a full narrative. The left-handed figures represented aspects of the immorality within society, they stand for indulgence, extravagance, corruptness and disorder. This is contradicted prominently in the morals shown by the group of lower-class characters, whose hard work and responsibility is given as an example of respectability.  [16]  The left-hand group of figures are understood to be travelling home from a masquerade ball, a popular event among the higher classes. Their clothing suggests such an outing has occurred, they are dressed in seventeenth century attire with aspects of the fanta stical added through masks and capes. The use of masqueraders as a representation of higher-classed figures encourages the audience to consider their immorality. The word masquerade can be attributed to the concept of deception, to faà §ade ones identity and thus can be applied to the female figures on the left of the image. To contemporaries this symbolic meaning highlighted the immortality of such activities, the true class identity of the figures is hidden from the public, and thus the women featured may be little more than kept mistresses or highly risen prostitutes. This is again polarized against the image of the lower class women, who do not attempt to hide their social identity, these women, despite their lower class, were considered respectable within Victorian society. The immorality of the deviant middle-class is further exhibited in the image portrayed by the most forward male masquerader who contemporary audiences interpreted to be the fallen womens seducer. The narrat ive surrounding this figure arises from his surprised expression as he stares at the dead prostitutes body. The placement of the seducer within the picture enhances the idea of the prostitute as a victim of society. VICTIM OF SOCIETY WHY WAS SHE CONSIDERED SO? The concept of the prostitute as a victim of society at, is promoted in other Victorian imagery, however it remained that as a patriarchal society the promotion or display of male sexuality did not act to destabilise the morality of society. Ford Maddox Browns painting Take Your Son Sir, 1851-6, has occasionally been referenced with the theme of social immorality, though others believe it to be a purely representation of a wife holding a child out to her husband. The painting uses a traditional Madonna and Child composition, however shows the mother and child within a contemporary Victorian interior, which negates away from the concept of traditionalist imagery. The woman holds the child out in front of her, whilst the image of a male can be seen in the mirror behind the mother and child, a mirror which acting as a nimbus continues the theme of traditional Madonna and Child imagery, on initial viewing the woman appears to hold her child toward the audience. On considering the contemporary environment the figures are situated in, the absence of the father and the uncomfortable expression across the womans face interpretations emerged that this was in fact the depiction of a kept mistress holding a child out to her seducer .  [17]   Chapter Three: Representation in Paint Much like Drowned! Drowned! Augustus Leopold Eggs 1858 painting known as Past and Present provides audiences with a prominent narrative. However in Eggs work the tale is generally considered indisputable. Accounting for this definite narrative is the triptychs official title; August the 4th. Have just heard that B. has been dead more than a fortnight, so his poor children have now lost both parents. I hear she was seen on Friday last near the Strand, evidently without a place to lay her head. What a fall hers has been! The language within the title is fundamental in initialising the symbolism within the images. Aside from securing the narrative, the inclusion of such a citation allowed audiences to clearly understand the issue of morality within. The images tell of a man, known to us only as B, who has died and untimely death leaving two orphaned children. As the passage continues it becomes clear that his orphaned children are at the mercy of an immoral mother, who having fallen into the destitute world of prostitution has become a social outcast. The theme of the deviant woman is continued in her reference only as she and her, she has, as a result of her adultery, has forcefully become anonymous loosing both her class identify and social standing.  [18]  Completed as a triptych Past and Present was not displayed chronologically. When on display the first part of the series, Past and Present No 1 the scene of the husbands discovery becomes the central segment flanked either side by scenes year s after the central episode. When considered together this imagery allows an insight into a possible, and frequent, reason for a womans decent to prostitution. Adultery, during the nineteenth century was considered the most serious form of female deviancy. Whilst the image of the fallen woman or prostitute was frequently represented as a victim of society that of the adulteress was not permitted sympathy. Whilst is it entirely possible that other women depicted as prostitutes suffered similar experiences to that of the woman in Past and Present there is rarely any symbolism suggesting such disgrace. Naturally the Eggs image is occupied with symbolism hinting at her adulterous activities. The woman is seen sprawled across her floor, her arms are outstretched, almost reaching the lower right hand corner of the image; her fists are clasped together in a motion to suggest begging, though it is unclear who this is aimed at as her body is forced away form that of her seated husband. The womans face is hidden from the viewer, perhaps in tune with the use of pronouns to remove her social and class identity. Above the woman sits her betrayed husband . He is posed, with one hand clenched upon the tabletop the other grasping a single piece of paper. The audience cannot but assume the possibilities of what is on this piece of paper. Beneath his left foot one can just make out the image of a broken photograph frame, perhaps their wedding photograph or an image of her lover? From the figure of the betrayed husband the viewers eye is encouraged towards the presence of two paintings on the wall behind him. The upper painting is a print of Clarksons The Shipwreck, which debuted to a great response in the Royal Academy exhibition of 1856.  [19]  The lower painting shows the portrait of a man, suspected to be the husband, this mirrors a similar portrait on the left of the painting this time assumed to portray the wife. The individual portraits can be seen to show division within the marriage, a statement of what is to follow this scene of discovery. The most symbolic painting within the image is that above the portrait of the wife. T his frame is representative of Eves deviancy and expulsion from Eden. Symbolism reverting to womans first incident of violation is again referenced in the half eaten apple next to the womens strained body. Problematic for the viewer is the depiction of the couples two daughters within the scene. Whilst the younger appears oblivious the elder is distracted from the card tower they are structuring resulting in its collapse. The tumbling cards are balanced upon a book by the French novelist Balzac. French society was regarded as unstable and dangerous, its literature was believed to be a source of corruption and immorality and many contemporaries were concerned about the harmful reverberations of French morality in England.  [20]  The inclusion of this work of literature is used as method of anchoring the infidelity to a modern and believable cause. The second and third sections of Past and Present illustrate the lasting implications the scene of discovery had upon the women of the family. Past and Present No 2 shows the hardship the daughters suffer as result of having a deviant and adulteress for a mother, while Past and Present No 3 exemplifies the immoral and sorrowful existence the adulteress has succumbed to. As previously mentioned female deviancy in the form of adultery was considered the most severe, from 1854 this was the only clause in the initial divorce bill taken to Parliament, which entitled a husband to divorce his wife.  [21]  Though it was possible for women to divorce their husbands from 1854 onwards incest was the only grounds accepted, it was not considered indecent for men to continue seeing prostitutes or to have extramarital sex, partly due to the vast number of years their wives were expected to be with child. As Nead cites a female who commits adultery was condemned so on the grounds that it was see n to have the most serious social consequences not only in relation to their own social position but also, and more critically, in terms of its effects on husband, children and home.  [22]  Past and Present No 2 shows the two daughters, seen in the first image, sitting together gazing out of an open window. From their surroundings one immediately understood that the downfall of their mother had also resulted in their own fall from society. They sit in an attic room away from the new middle class and bourgeoisie lifestyle they were born into. Women who were charged with committing adultery were forbidden to claim custody and more extremely to see their children as stated in the Custody of Infants Act, 1839.  [23]   Critics generally understood Past and Present No3 as being set around the same time as the second instalment of the triptych. The third image represents the fate of the adulteress. Again the environment in which she is depicted suggests a lot about her social standing. Sitting beneath the Adelphi arches, an area between the Strand and the River Thames and a well-known dwelling for streetwalking prostitutes. The figure of a woman, the adulteress, is scarcely seen for the vast shadows and poor lighting beneath the arches, again immorality is referenced through the use of darkness, on first glance it would be easy to miss the child she is holding upon her lap. Nevertheless a pair of legs emerge from the confines of her dark shawl. Understood to be an illegitimate child we again see how the actions of the deviant woman can affect the life of her family. Whilst it was common practice to publicly condemn the adulteress, the figure of the prostitutes and very often that of the fallen woman was represented to society as a victim of the deviant seducer. As Egg manipulates the way in which his female character is depicted, that being from adulteress to homeless prostitute, he manages to produce imagery, which as in many images of the same topic, particularly Drowned! Drowned!, evokes the ideal of the victim. Where Solomon has applied religious iconography within him image, relating to that of Christs dead body so too has Egg. Thomas brings to light the reference to religious imagery by citing that Eggs image goes as far as to employ iconographical details usually associated with the Virgin Mary to transform this sinful woman into a type of Madonna. Thomas continues to note that the adulteresss change of clothes and environment seen to symbolize not only her tragic fate but a spiritual rebirth.  [24]  This can further be supported by the use of light within the image, potentially acting as a halo to secure her repentance. While Past and Present highlighted a scenario, which enlightened audiences to why a woman might end up working as a prostitute, William Holman Hunts The Awakening Conscious, 1853 focused more forcefully on the ideas of regret and remorse. The theme of the regretful prostitute was a common representation during the latter nineteenth century, particularly among the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood. The most prominent of these images are, The Awakening Conscious by Holman Hunt, The Gate of Memory, 1857 by Rossetti and Thoughts of the Past, 1859 by J.R. Spencer Stanhope. These three images congregate contemporary symbolism to tell their respective tales. As previously noted when discussing both Drowned! Drowned! and Past and Present a narrative that was accessibly to the contemporary audience was a primary factor in the painting of socially controversial images. While all three images provide audiences with a depiction of remorseful and regretful women they do so in varying manners. Both Hunt and Stanhope proceed with similar methods of symbolising the women within their images as prostitutes, showing various accoutrements associated with such a profession. Stanhopes womans profession is defined by the details upon her dressing table prominently the money and jewellery, which contradicts her shabby appearance and dockside residency.  [25]  Her profession is further hinted at in the inclusion of a males walking stick and stray glove. Hunt, in The Awakening Conscience, also uses the inclusions of such accessories. The composition of Hunts image encourages the audiences eye toward the clasped hands of the woman where one instantly notices the lack of a wedding band, a roughly discarded gloved and the unravelling of a piece of embroidery advance theories of her profession. The models loosely flowing hair suggests her intimacy with the male as does her close proximity to him, his arms circled around her waist. A stream of light flows through a nearby window, which lights up the lower portion of the painting. It is this stream of light, again as an allegory of Christian morality, which contemporaries understood to have induced the prostitutes moment of remorse and regret. The remainder of the paintings symbolism is dedicated to the further development of the female as a figure of remorse. Behind the figures we can see a wide-open widow, from which the light entered the darkened environment. The window provides the possibility of escape from this life of immorality; encouraged in the painting of the natural world this could be considered an ode to the morality of rural life. However the possibility of escape is then contradicted in the imagery of a cat toying with a bird just as the male figure has done with his mistress. Although the issue of morality was extensive in the painting of prostitutes so too was the subject of disease and infection. Dante Gabrielle Rossetti in his 1857 painting The Gate of Memory allows a manifestation of the Victorian Prostitute through association with dirt and physical impurity. Whilst the painting shares compositional similarities with formulaic interpretations of the topic such as the separation from a more innocent and honourable lifestyle and the use of light against dark as an allegory for moral verses immoral, though Hunt and Stanhope refer to the conflict between natural and unnatural light, Rossetti furthers the use of symbolism as a means of defining the prostitutes immorality alongside that of the cities. While there are no si

A History Of Fly By Wire

A History Of Fly By Wire Abstract This research report provides a historical portrait of the development and implementation of fly-by-wire flight control systems. The report explains to the reader what flight controls are. It provides an overview of major innovations in flight control systems. It then goes on to explain what a fly-by-wire flight control system is and discusses the NASA development program that made fly-by-wire a reality. It then discusses the F-16 Fighting Falcon which was the first mass produced aircraft to utilize a fly-by-wire system. The benefits of fly-by-wire flight control are discussed as is the expansion of fly-by-wire flight control systems into commercial and general aviation. Finally, a conclusion on the substance of this report is provided. 1. Introduction Purpose This historical research report describes the development and implementation of fly-by-wire flight control systems in order to satisfy the formal report requirements outlined in the course syllabus for EGR 3350, Technical Communications for Engineers and Computer Scientists. 1.2 Background Ever since the dawn of powered human flight was realized by Orville and Wilbur Wright in December 1903, engineers and aeronautic innovators have sought to institute more efficient and safer methods of aircraft flight control. The evolution of flight control systems from human powered mechanical linkages to fly-by-wire computer systems constitutes a marvelous display of aeronautical engineering progression. Fly-by-wire flight control systems signaled a great leap in aeronautical thinking and design from mechanical linkage and large hydraulic systems to computer-aided electrical flight control systems. An article by Gray Creech of NASAs Dryden Flight Research Center explains how [1] these systems created enormous benefits for the aerospace industry allowing overall reduction of weight and aircraft system redundancy increasing safety of flight. NASAs fly-by-wire development program was the first program to successfully institute an electrical flight control system without a mechanical b ackup. This programs success led to the first mass produced fly-by-wire aircraft, General Dynamics and Lockheed Martins F-16 Fighting Falcon, the space shuttles fly-by-wire flight control computer, and many other advancements in fly-by-wire flight control that are now being realized in the commercial and general aviation industries. 1.3 Scope This report will explain to the reader what flight control is and detail a brief history of aircraft flight control and the innovations that preceded fly-by-wire system development. This report will then discuss NASAs fly-by-wire development program and the initial deployment of this technology in the F-16 Fighting Falcon. This report will explain the many benefits inherently derived from employing a fly-by-wire flight control system. Finally, this report will detail how this flight control system evolved to be used in the commercial and general aviation industry. This report will not cover future trends of fly-by-wire flight control systems. 2. Discussion 2.1 What is Flight Control? The control of flight of an aircraft is determined by control surfaces on the aircraft body that are adjusted in coordinated movements by a flight control system that orients an aerospace vehicle around three axes of motion. These axes of motion are referred to as yaw, pitch, and roll. Figure 1 illustrates these axes. Figure 1. Aircraft Axes of Motion Dr. William Elliot gives a great synopsis on how these axes of motion are affected by control surfaces. [2] 1. Normal (vertical) axis, perpendicular to the surface of the wings. Movement about the vertical axis in flight is called yaw. In most modern aircraft, stability in yaw is affected by a fixed vertical fin in the rear; active control in yaw is accomplished by a movable rudder fixed behind the vertical fin. 2. Longitudinal axis, passing through the fuselage from front to back. Movement about the longitudinal axis is called roll. Stability in roll is taken care of by wings fixed at a slightly upward angle (dihedral); active flight control in roll is done by flaps (ailerons) behind the outer wings. 3. Lateral (horizontal) axis, passing through the wings approximately from tip to tip. Movement about the horizontal axis is called pitch. Stability in pitch is conferred by a fixed horizontal tailplane; flight control in pitch is accomplished by elevators mounted behind the tailplane. In controlling these surfaces, a pilot utilizes various control mechanisms such as mechanical linkages, hydraulics, trim tabs, actuators, and, in the case of fly-by-wire systems, electricity and computers to create the desired output on the flight control surfaces based on the pilots input. 2.2 Brief History of Flight Control System Progression Dr. Elliot continues to explain that after [2] Glenn Curtisss patent of the aileron, the basics of modern flight control were firmly established, and the result was a standardized cable-operated control system. [2] In this standard arrangement, a single control column (or stick) was used to operate both elevators and ailerons through a series of cables and pulleys; in a similar fashion, the rudder was moved by foot pedals. The physical strength of the pilot was all that was required to augment these control surfaces in flight for slow moving aircraft. The physical limitations of pilots began to be realized as aircraft became faster and heavier. [2] This problem was initially solved by the installation of small flaps (tabs) on primary control surfaces. These surfaces utilized the airflow acting on the tabs to move the main control surface they were attached to. The development of automatic piloting systems was also on going at this time and [2] steady advances in autopilot technology led to the development of mechanical boosters to assist pilots in moving control surfaces of very large aircraft. [2] Successive aircraft produced during the late 1940s and early 1950s continued to make great advances in hydro-mechanical flight control systems. [3] During this time period hydro-mechanical control systems developed into 3000 psi hydraulic systems as seen in Figure 2. Figure 2. Flight Control System Innovation Timeline [3] Technology Military Commercial Un-Powered: 1910s 1920s Powered Boost: 1940s 1940s 3000 psi Hydraulics: 1940s 1950s Auto Pilots: 1950s 1950s Fully Powered, w/*Reversion: 1950s 1960s (Boeing 727) Fully Powered, w/out *Reversion: 1950s (B-47) 1970 (Boeing 747) Fly-By-Wire: 1970s (F-16) 1980s (A-320) Digital Fly-by-Wire: 1970s 1980s (A-320) 5000 psi Hydraulics: 1990s (V-22) 2005 (A-380) Power-By-Wire: 2006 (F-35) 2005 (A-380) *Reversion: Servo actuators unlock allowing pilot mechanical control. [3] Figure 2 details the engineering progression of flight control systems over the last 100 years. Interestingly, prior to the institution of fly-by-wire flight control systems, [2] artificial feel systems were incorporated in flight control systems to necessitate the need for pilots to feel as though they were still mechanically connected to the aircraft flight control system even though hydraulic systems broke this connection between pilot and control surface. These advancements in flight control technology culminated in the desire for an electrical means of flight control system execution. 2.3 What is a Fly-By-Wire (FBW) Flight Control System? [2] Aerospace Recommended Practice (ARP) defines FBW as a flight control system wherein vehicle control information is transmitted completely by electrical means. A FBW control system is a computer system that monitors pilot control inputs, various parameters such as airspeed, altitude and angle-of-attack, and outputs flight control surface movements with the objective of keeping the aircraft within its designated flight envelope. Literally, this computer interprets electrical signals via pilot control and sensor input and outputs electrical signals to actuate the corresponding control surface in order to achieve the desired flight orientation. The flight envelope refers to the safe operating characteristics an aircraft is designed to fly at given different speeds, altitudes and other variables. The actuation of a fly-by-wire system is effectively the same for all such systems, namely; the system employs electrical signal inputs to create electrical signal outputs. However, these systems can be deployed with a varying array of design elements or control law algorithms that decide how the system will react in a given situation as well as what entity, human or computer, has superior control of the aircraft at a given time. This subject will be elaborated on in a later section. 2.4 NASAs Digital Fly-By-Wire (DFBW) Development Program On May 25, 1972 at NASAs Dryden Flight Research Center, the first flight to successfully demonstrate a digital FBW flight control system without a mechanical backup was conducted. [1] Support for the concept at NASA Headquarters came from Neil Armstrong, himself a former research pilot at Dryden. He served in NASAs Office of Advanced Research and Technology following his historic Apollo 11 lunar landing and knew electronic control systems from his days training in and operating Apollo spacecraft. Armstrong suggested that the Dryden DFBW team adapt an Apollo program digital flight control computer. It wasnt long, however, before the DFBW program developed a digital flight control computer that significantly advanced the state of the art. This was demonstrated by the fact that for the Space Shuttle, designers turned to the DFBW program for a flight computer for the Orbiters. The result was a classic case of in-house technology transfer. The original digital flight control computer deve lopment from Apollo proceeded to the DFBW program and then back again into space aboard the Shuttle. The program utilized a Navy F-8C Crusader for testing which incorporated the use of computers in making the flight control surface deflections that corresponded to the pilot input. [3] NASAs DFBW program, consisting of 210 flights, lasted 13 years. Figure 3 [6] shows the avionics bay of the test aircraft where the computers that managed the flight control system were installed. Figure 3. F-8C Test Aircraft Avionics Bay 2.5 F-16 Fighting Falcon Originally developed by General Dynamics and now produced by Lockheed Martin, the F-16 was the first mass produced aircraft to use a FBW flight control system. The F-16 has seen multiple upgrades since its service debut in the 1970s. These upgrades are typically called blocks and are designated by a number. In the F-16s case, [4] the F-16 A/B model consists of blocks 1, 5, 10, 15, 15OCU, and 20 while the F-16 C/D model consists of blocks 25, 30, 32, 40, 42, 50, and 52. There also is F-16 E/F block 60 models developed for the United Arab Emirates, an F-16 MLU (Mid Life Update) block, and various other F-16 models developed for special purposes or foreign customers. These blocks signaled upgrades in areas such as avionics, engines, engine inlet area, and weapons capabilities to name a few. According to Joe Sambor, a Lockheed Martin aero field service engineer, [5] all F-16 block designations developed prior to block 40 utilized analog flight control computers while all later blocks in cluding block 40 utilized digital flight control computers. The difference between analog and digital computers lies in the way they process information. Analog computers work in a continuous time environment where data can take on an infinite set of values which results in no loss of transmitted data; however, its implementation is cumbersome requiring an extensive hardware configuration. Moreover, this hardware configuration is difficult to upgrade. Digital systems operate in a discrete time environment where data values are finite. Loss of data is augmented by high resolution and sampling rates which effectively renders data transmission loss negligible. The benefit in system implementation is mainly software based providing smooth transitions for system upgrades and reduction in overall system cost and maintenance. The F-16 utilizes four separate flight control computer systems which work together to select the proper flight response output at any given time. This flight control configuration is considered practically immune to failure as long as power is applied to the aircraft. 2.6 Benefits of Fly-By-Wire Flight Control Systems One of the great benefits FBW technology brings to the aviation industry is the ability for aerospace engineers to design an aircraft to be inherently unstable allowing for increased maneuverability. Prior to FBW, aircraft had to be designed to inherently want to return to straight and level flight. This meant that maneuverability was diminished due to the fact that, in order for the aircraft to maneuver, the aircraft had to first overcome its inherently designed stability. FBW systems are able to monitor aircraft flight in real time allowing aircraft that could never fly with simply the skill of the pilot because of the aircrafts instability the ability to take to the skies. Also, [6] aircraft weight is reduced with the removal of mechanical linkages and reduction in hydraulic system components. Enhanced safety is provided by the redundancy design of electrical circuits as well as the computers ability to respond to an adverse flight condition much faster than a pilot. The overall c ost of the system is reduced as less hardware and mechanical parts are required, fuel efficiency of the aircraft is increased, and passengers experience greater comfort derived from the increased aircraft handling characteristics. Furthermore, the system can be designed to control the flight envelope keeping the pilot from making control inputs that would put the aircraft outside its safe operating capability. Also, digital FBW control systems can accept input from any aircraft sensor reducing rigidity constraints in system design. 2.7 Expansion of Fly-By-Wire Systems in Aviation Currently, DFBW flight control systems are available in every aspect of government, military, and commercial aviation. These systems are deployed on helicopters, fighter jets, stealth bombers, and commercial airliners. Even general aviation is starting to see the benefits that DFBW technology has to offer. Mark Tatge, a writer for Forbes magazine, explains that [7] small-piston aircraft and business jets are undergoing a radical upgrade. Digital technology developed for combat fighters and commercial aircraft 20 years ago is finally making its way into the cockpits of small aircraft, often at a fraction of the cost of the electronics currently installed in Boeing jumbo jets. Major airlines like Airbus and Boeing have already begun moving their fleets toward the DFBW domain. Airbus made this move with its A320 aircraft, [6] the first commercial airliner to have DFBW technology. Boeing subsequently followed suit by employing DFBW technology on its 777 and 787 aircraft models. It is interesting to note however, that Airbus and Boeing differ in the employment of their respective DFBW flight control systems and algorithm control laws. An article written by Brian Palmer summarizes the differences between the two aircraft manufacturers. Palmer explains that [8] Airbus employs a joystick that electrically connects the pilots input to the flight controls where Boeing employs the standard yoke that still uses cables to deliver pilot input commands. Airbus also utilizes control algorithms called flight envelope protection that keeps the aircraft from flying outside its designed operating area. Boeing gives more latitude to the pilot in being able to push the envelo pe when appropriate. Palmer also goes on to explain how [8] it is unclear as to whether flight envelope protection makes air travel safer. Palmer cites two aircraft incidents; namely, China Airlines Flight 006 and the crash of an American Airlines jet in November 2001 where flight envelope protection could have hindered the aircraft flight control recovery or could have prevented the crash, respectively. 3. Conclusion 3.1 Summary The employment of flight control systems over the past one hundred years has seen quantum leaps in the design and theory behind how a pilot actually controls the flight of an aerospace vehicle. DFBW technology has exponentially increased the safety of flight for millions of people. This area of engineering owes its continued refinement and evolution to countless individuals and organizations who have taken on the challenge of developing the control systems that advance the safety and efficiency of flight. It is amazing to look back in history on the evolution of aerospace vehicles and recount that within fifty years of human beings first successfully completing powered flight that autopilots were flying planes without human pilot commands from Canada to England. That physical power of flight controls was supplanted by hydraulic actuation which in turn was augmented with electrical circuits. That the advent of seemingly unrelated hardware such as microprocessors and logic circuits wou ld have such a profound place in designing an aircraft to fly. That the innovators in this field had the vision and courage to trust their knowledge and engineering skill in putting the lives of capable pilots in the hands of a computer system. The flight control systems currently deployed in aviation constitute some the most well engineered, capable and, failure resistant electrical systems ever created. However, it should be noted that such systems seem to still be in their adolescence and much discovery and improvement is left to the next generation who endeavors to improve upon and invent the future of aerospace flight control systems. Sources Cited [1] Creech, Gray. Digital Fly By Wire: Aircraft Flight Control Comes of Age. http://www.nasa.gov/vision/earth/improvingflight/fly_by_wire.html. Jim Wilson. NASA Dryden Flight Research Center, September 30, 2007. Internet. October 24, 2012. [2] Elliot, Dr. William. The Development of Fly-By-Wire Flight Control. Air Force Material Command: Office of History, AFMC Historical Study No. 7, December 1996. Print. [3] Greetham, Tom. Evolution of Powered Flight Controls. http://mae.osu.edu/sites/mae.web.engadmin.ohiostate.edu/files/uploads/ME888Presentations/evolution_of_powered_flight_controls_seminar.pdf, February 10, 2012. Accessed November 10, 2012. Internet. [4] F-16.Net. Production Blocks and Experimental Versions. http://www.f-16.net/f-16_versions.html. Accessed December 2, 2012. Internet. [5] Sambor, Joe. F-16.Net Forum. http://www.f-16.net/f-16_forum_viewtopic-t-6605.html, October 22, 2006. Accessed December 2, 2012. Internet. [6] Philippe, Christian. The Impact of Control Technology. T. Samad and A.M. Annaswamy (eds.), IEEE Control Systems Society, 2011. Internet. October 23, 2012. [7] Tatge, Mark. Fly By Wire. http://www.forbes.com/forbes/2005/1128/083.html. November 11, 2005. Accessed December 2, 2012. Internet. [8] Palmer, Brian. Boeing Vs. Airbus. http://www.slate.com/articles/news_and_politics/explainer/2011/07/boeing_vs_airbus.html. July 11, 2011. Accessed December 2, 2012. Internet.